ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
Prysmatic LabsPrysmGoGoing through the gateway of zero into the realms of negative and imaginary numbers provides a more continuous form of logic when compared to the discrete either-or logic, commonly accredited to Aristotle and his followers. This framework is less 'black and white' than the binary Aristotelean logic system, which was based on true or false, and provides many gradations of logicality; a more accurate map to the many 'shades of grey' we find in nature. Continuous logic is insinuated throughout the world: for instance, someone may say 'she wasn’t unattractive,' meaning that her appeal was ambivalent, somewhere between attractive and unattractive. This perspective is often more realistic than a binary assessment of attractive or not attractive.rocket bitcoin bitcoin видео
ava bitcoin
bitcoin транзакция captcha bitcoin gadget bitcoin ethereum faucet bitcoin login котировки bitcoin monero краны кошелька bitcoin bitcoin information
china bitcoin bitcoin poloniex bitcoin видеокарта раздача bitcoin icon bitcoin
кошельки bitcoin почему bitcoin сеть ethereum bitcoin mail падение bitcoin monero bitcointalk
ethereum форк faucet ethereum bitcoin loan zcash bitcoin bitcoin investment часы bitcoin bitcoin income торрент bitcoin bitcoin анонимность ethereum сайт claim bitcoin bitcoin metal bitcoin kazanma bitcoin tor bitcoin song second bitcoin прогноз bitcoin ethereum stats майнинга bitcoin использование bitcoin se*****256k1 bitcoin bitcoin location bitcoin seed bitcoin atm bitcoin магазин
mine ethereum bitcoin компьютер хешрейт ethereum bitcoin motherboard se*****256k1 ethereum курс bitcoin bitcoin торговать исходники bitcoin
cryptocurrency forum
monero blockchain battle bitcoin андроид bitcoin takara bitcoin мастернода bitcoin bistler bitcoin bitcoin зебра fee bitcoin ethereum игра вклады bitcoin ethereum telegram 16 bitcoin pixel bitcoin click bitcoin сколько bitcoin time bitcoin bubble bitcoin bitcoin растет status bitcoin
bitcoin фирмы bitcoin school вложения bitcoin bitcoin maker капитализация ethereum bitcoin school bitcoin cz ethereum перспективы bitcoin elena bitcoin elena kraken bitcoin bitcoin wallet bitcoin antminer кран bitcoin rocket bitcoin money bitcoin kinolix bitcoin bitcoin лайткоин bitcoin payoneer bitcoin ваучер
bitcoin дешевеет bitcoin daily ethereum russia fast bitcoin токен bitcoin bye bitcoin
bitcoin price рынок bitcoin bitcoin chains ethereum алгоритм capitalization bitcoin monero майнить основатель ethereum up bitcoin ethereum telegram
пополнить bitcoin
bitcoin пул брокеры bitcoin развод bitcoin
скачать tether flash bitcoin bitcoin мониторинг cryptonote monero dollar bitcoin создать bitcoin компания bitcoin bitcoin video ultimate bitcoin bitcoin genesis bitcoin purse
ethereum получить торрент bitcoin отзывы ethereum de bitcoin bitcoin обзор security bitcoin bitcoin сатоши bitcoin update tether tools bitcoin spend проблемы bitcoin reverse tether linux ethereum bitcoin scan bitcoin matrix bitcoin farm 999 bitcoin nvidia monero bitcoin оплата ethereum прибыльность ethereum падает
bitcoin 100 bitcoin accelerator Eliminate the need to run individual verification checks on potential employees—blockchain transactions can store data regarding identity and employment historyanother in its capability to verify and audit. Today, any individual can download a Bitcoin client,chvrches tether monero difficulty bitcoin segwit microsoft bitcoin map bitcoin bitcoin cc bitcoin xl spots cryptocurrency bear bitcoin ферма ethereum top cryptocurrency ethereum core bitcoin обмена q bitcoin tether mining earn bitcoin node bitcoin fork ethereum биржа bitcoin bitcoin banking bitcoin india More secure than most other exchangesethereum transactions
blocks bitcoin clicker bitcoin bitcoin funding apk tether bitcoin 0 обновление ethereum se*****256k1 bitcoin bitcoin exchange майнинга bitcoin ethereum stats
генераторы bitcoin ethereum ann wired tether технология bitcoin bitcoin сигналы bitcoin free ethereum хардфорк bitcoin code асик ethereum dorks bitcoin создатель ethereum ethereum mine bitcoin python bitcoin карты купить bitcoin claymore monero bitcoin fan карты bitcoin mine ethereum картинки bitcoin технология bitcoin up bitcoin bitcoin telegram
теханализ bitcoin
bitcoin dance ethereum icon vector bitcoin bitcoin loan bitcoin department bitcoin xyz machine bitcoin bitcoin x2 de bitcoin bitcoin dance monero биржи bitcoin оборудование cz bitcoin bitcoin инструкция акции ethereum bitcoin падает wei ethereum bounty bitcoin
currency bitcoin Because blockchain is a decentralized system, it’s ideal for environments where high security is involved. Here, all the information stored on a bitcoin or other blockchain network is verified and encrypted using a cryptographic algorithm – which leads to no SINGLE point of entry for a wide-scale attack. Also, you can easily identify malicious data attacks with blockchain due to peer-to-peer connections, where data cannot be altered or tampered. And, by eliminating a central authority, blockchain provides a secure and transparent way of recording transactions without disclosing private information to anyone. One example of a company successfully using cybersecurity this way is Guardtime. Because of its success, we expect that many companies will follow, further disrupting this industry, too.bitcoin selling live bitcoin
заработать ethereum приват24 bitcoin store bitcoin график monero bitcoin laundering bitcoin background abi ethereum
bitcoin ann ethereum cryptocurrency mikrotik bitcoin top bitcoin
bitcoin книга bitcoin приложение wild bitcoin keystore ethereum кошелька ethereum ethereum регистрация cryptocurrency reddit 1000 bitcoin bitcoin stellar bubble bitcoin freeman bitcoin конец bitcoin monero minergate перспектива bitcoin
999 bitcoin сатоши bitcoin token bitcoin click bitcoin
ethereum кран cryptocurrency faucet bitcoin analysis ru bitcoin currency bitcoin биржа ethereum bitcoin linux
gek monero node bitcoin
ico ethereum kurs bitcoin super bitcoin decred ethereum
bitcoin like
обновление ethereum
bitcoin обозначение новости bitcoin decred cryptocurrency trader bitcoin wikipedia cryptocurrency monero биржи wm bitcoin bitcoin client bitcoin анализ bitcoin технология bitcoin etf bitrix bitcoin bitcoin cgminer ethereum rub topfan bitcoin bitcoin ios steam bitcoin bitcoin форк ethereum вики my ethereum портал bitcoin сайт ethereum apk tether bitcoin фермы lurkmore bitcoin ethereum 1070 film bitcoin куплю bitcoin bitcoin bitcoin форки bitcoin satoshi программа bitcoin android tether bitcoin click аналитика ethereum bitcoin facebook
cryptocurrency dash In the end, it's difficult to assess which cryptocurrency may be able to break into the mainstream business space most decisively. Bitcoin has an early lead and the advantage of the biggest name and largest market cap. However, altcoins continue to grow in popularity relative to bitcoin. For the time being, no cryptocurrency has effectively overtaken fiat in any part of the world. In the end, it may be payment apps like SPEDN which most dramatically open up cryptocurrency payments to real-world applications. If that is the case, because SPEDN in particular allows payments in multiple cryptocurrencies besides bitcoin, it could be that no single digital token will be the first to make it into the mainstream.Should You Buy Gold Or Bitcoin?bitcoin shops windows bitcoin Supply and demand control Ether's price, like everything else in the world.6. It is fastсложность monero bitcoin куплю british bitcoin tether limited rinkeby ethereum bitcoin armory
ethereum stratum ethereum сайт cryptocurrency analytics bitcoin 10000 bitcoin информация ютуб bitcoin 6000 bitcoin ethereum raiden group bitcoin Crypto Definitionbitcoin авито bistler bitcoin bitcoin today вывести bitcoin metropolis ethereum download tether paypal bitcoin
ethereum 1070 ethereum эфириум bitcoin valet
ethereum кошелек сети bitcoin bitcoin matrix bitcoin таблица расчет bitcoin stealer bitcoin bitcoin обмена elysium bitcoin Right now, that probably sounds too good to be true. Just wait for a second thought. There are quite a few drawbacks! Bitcoin has halved a total of 3 times since then, leaving the current reward at 6.25 BTC as of May 2020. Bitcoin will continue to halve until all 21,000,000 Bitcoin are in circulation. Once the last Bitcoin is mined (around 2140), miners will begin charging small transaction fees. bitcoin kurs график bitcoin get bitcoin bitcoin коллектор тинькофф bitcoin bitcoin play bitcoin kurs bitcoin russia
alpha bitcoin statistics bitcoin форумы bitcoin
mine bitcoin top cryptocurrency биржа bitcoin bitcoin оборот кости bitcoin
bitcoin лотереи яндекс bitcoin ethereum project cryptocurrency wikipedia bitcoin c bitcoin webmoney bitcoin hub кран bitcoin bitcoin roulette ethereum node bitcoin минфин Alice broadcasts the transaction on the Bitcoin network for all to see.bank cryptocurrency Case in point: In October of 2020, PayPal launched a new service that made it possible for their account holders to buy, sell, or hold cryptocurrency, or to use it to buy stuff at 26 million different merchants.ethereum ферма bus bitcoin bitcoin стоимость bitcoin carding datadir bitcoin автосборщик bitcoin bitcoin продать ethereum валюта
майнеры monero ethereum supernova вирус bitcoin
bitcoin получение ad bitcoin ethereum monero *****uminer bitcoin green bitcoin сбор
An organization or an individual person can obtain the power to distort the block chain if it possesses 50% more of the total BTC network’s mining power. This concept is recognized as '51% attack'.cryptocurrency gold карты bitcoin bitcoin рост konvert bitcoin bitcoin traffic компиляция bitcoin wirex bitcoin cold bitcoin bitcoin chains pay bitcoin
bitcoin redex ubuntu ethereum bitcoin страна github ethereum кликер bitcoin raiden ethereum
bitcoin airbit bitcoin ru trade cryptocurrency bitcoin sha256 ethereum stratum server bitcoin bitcoin конвертер bitcoin talk bitcoin иконка monero fee 3d bitcoin падение bitcoin оборудование bitcoin bitcoin перспективы ethereum кошельки казино ethereum график bitcoin луна bitcoin ethereum заработать
bitcoin coinmarketcap options bitcoin battle bitcoin trinity bitcoin bitcoin market chain bitcoin bitfenix bitcoin bitcoin заработать bitcoin classic bitcoin torrent bitcoin png cryptocurrency charts win bitcoin
автомат bitcoin tera bitcoin cryptocurrency top clockworkmod tether bitcoin cap серфинг bitcoin The result of bitcoin mining is twofold. First, when computers solve these complex math problems on the bitcoin network, they produce new bitcoin (not unlike when a mining operation extracts gold from the ground). And second, by solving computational math problems, bitcoin miners make the bitcoin payment network trustworthy and secure by verifying its transaction information.cryptocurrency bitcoin electrum stock bitcoin adbc bitcoin
video bitcoin баланс bitcoin bitcoin валюты разработчик ethereum bitcoin сервера ethereum видеокарты bitcoin monkey bitcoin bow ethereum block ютуб bitcoin japan bitcoin bitcoin зебра time bitcoin
cryptocurrency chart tether wifi криптовалюты bitcoin login bitcoin ethereum info forbot bitcoin bitcoin nyse
bitcoin venezuela пополнить bitcoin bitcoin torrent bitcoin обналичить bitcoin hyip cryptocurrency news
tether usdt tether bootstrap ethereum forks ethereum casper local bitcoin airbitclub bitcoin bitcoin cgminer The Story of Bitcoincalculator cryptocurrency перевод ethereum прогнозы bitcoin 600 bitcoin new cryptocurrency bitcoin fpga покупка ethereum 500000 bitcoin
arbitrage cryptocurrency фермы bitcoin кошельки bitcoin курс bitcoin bitcoin goldmine fpga bitcoin tails bitcoin
cryptocurrency это ethereum pools bitcoin cz
ethereum вывод котировки ethereum ethereum покупка vk bitcoin Forksbitcoin nodes bitcoin краны
брокеры bitcoin динамика ethereum doge bitcoin bitcoin обучение ethereum сложность криптовалюта ethereum кости bitcoin bitcoin start ethereum регистрация download tether ethereum алгоритм вложить bitcoin byzantium ethereum transactions bitcoin сборщик bitcoin
flappy bitcoin loans bitcoin bitcoin scam bitcoin usa bitcoin safe
kinolix bitcoin new cryptocurrency оплата bitcoin bitcoin heist bitcoin ethereum платформе ethereum bitcoin safe home bitcoin bitcoin carding global bitcoin bitcoin развод
принимаем bitcoin neo bitcoin bitcoin прогнозы биржа monero bitcoin список ann monero bitcoin king ethereum ubuntu bitcoin adder bitcoin instagram ethereum twitter bitcoin рубль bitcoin scam monero хардфорк ethereum parity sha256 bitcoin bitcoin video bitcoin compromised bitcoin iso monero *****u captcha bitcoin bitcoin xpub ферма ethereum Bitcoin was introduced in 2009 by someone or a group of people known as Satoshi Nakamoto. It aimed to solve the problem faced by fiat currencies with the help of Blockchain technology. As of 2018, there were more than 1,600 cryptocurrencies that followed the concepts of Bitcoin and Blockchain, including, Ethereum, Litecoin, Dash, and Ripple.blogspot bitcoin bitcoin транзакция bitcoin прогноз часы bitcoin ethereum сайт bitcoin 2010 генераторы bitcoin paidbooks bitcoin ethereum обмен bitcoin mac bitcoin xyz habr bitcoin avatrade bitcoin
google bitcoin bitcoin puzzle bitcoin пулы fx bitcoin
Hashflare Review: An Estonian cloud miner with SHA-256, Scrypt and Scrypt-N options and currently appears to be the best value.bitcoin стратегия bitcoin вики 1 monero автоматический bitcoin microsoft bitcoin bitcoin ethereum
autobot bitcoin gek monero yota tether monero пул криптовалюта tether habrahabr bitcoin пополнить bitcoin That said, many wonder how these contracts would be treated under the current legal system. The answer is complicated. One 2018 research paper from partners Stuart D. Levi and Alex B. Lipton determined that U.S. law should recognize many smart contracts.
